They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. Water Resources in Cameroon This is the sum of renewable groundwater and renewable surface water resources (both internal and external) Renewable Water Resources 283 billion m/year Total Renewable Water Resources (2017) Water Resources per Capita 11,769 m/person/year Renewable Water per Inhabitant (2017) Water Dependency 4 % More information on the derivation and interpretation of these statistics can be seen on the FAO Aquastat website. Climate, Hydrology and Water Resources in Cameroon. The main rivers in the south of the country are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri, which flow southwestward or westward into the Gulf of Guinea. Freya Van Kesteren, Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: ZD MV. Boreholes are typically between 40 and 200 m deep. doi.org/10.1007/s11269-009-9476-4. Chari has a length of 590 miles, part of which forms international border between Chad and Cameroon. Lions were one of those species which were not spared from the curiosity of the world. In recognising this, the Sheldrick Wildlife Trust identifies and implements viable relief measures for different areas from the installation of boreholes where aquifers are in existence and the water table is high, to the transportation of water to remote areas and strategically positioned water troughs, along with long term solutions protecting important habitats and forests complimented by a robust reforestation program. Recharge occurs to the confined aquifer only in limited areas (GWP 2013). The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. (B) and (C) Jacobs index of seasonal preference to kill within 2 km of a waterhole for the different prey species for male and female lions respectively. Given the propensity of kill investigations to be biased towards large prey, this is likely an underestimation and it should be considered that juvenile zebra are highly selected for by lions. Additionally, dry season scarcity of good quality forage, exacerbated by local depletion around water sources, tends to make certain herbivores more vulnerable to predation, particularly during low rainfall periods [16][19]. WWF worked together with the communities to rehabilitate six stand taps in six communities, explains Njounan. What are the major rivers in Cameroon? Annual rainfall was 330 mm in 20042005, 683 mm in 20052006 and 703 mm in 20062007. Water Resources Management 24(5), 871888. A complex of granites, micaschists and migmatites. Some years back some boreholes were rehabilitated by either the local council or the community. This suggested that surface-water resources form passive traps and contribute to the structuring of lion foraging behaviour. A BGR project funded by the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) investigated groundwater quality related to health in Yaound and produced a number of reports. No seasonal difference in male lion diet was detected, due to the prime importance of buffalo throughout the year. Others walk over two kilometres to get the precious liquid. Certain details were gradually implemented to ensure that the environment of the areas where they were detained were close to if not identical to the habitat where they originally lived in. Across-ecosystems, comparisons of large mammalian carnivore diet have now provided a good understanding of the preferred prey weight range of several carnivore species [6][8], but local studies are still needed to unravel the role of environmental factors and prey availability. Town , 7530, Gorilla Trekking & the Great Migration Combined, Wildebeest Migration, Ngorongoro & Zanzibar Journey, Copyright Discover Africa Safaris | Etosha National Park Wildlife | Last Updated: 15 Sep 2022, View 6 Etosha Safaris, 20 of the best Masai Mara safari tours & lodges, Our Top 10 Choices For The Best Luxury Lodges In Kruger, 10 Africa Honeymoon Destinations Youre Guaranteed To Fall In Love With. For each season, we also calculated the availability of each distance-to-water category in the study area. The main aquifer in this basin is formed of unconsolidated Pliocene (Tertiary)-Quaternary sands, which form an upper and a lower aquifer, separated by a clay layer. Officially known as the Republic of Cameroon, this country is surrounded by six other African countries, as well as three bodies of water. In the north, the Bnou River flows north and west into the Niger. This index minimises the biases associated with small sample size (prey proportions below 10%), rare food items and non-linearity in proportional use over time [6]. We assessed seasonal prey preference using Jacobs selection index [35]: Where r is the proportion of the total number of kills or faecal samples of a particular species and p is the proportional availability of the prey species killed. United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Development and Economic Commission for Africa, Natural Resources/Water Series No. The local presence of evaporites in the Mamf basin leads to groundwaters of sodium-chloride composition (Mafany and Fantong 2006). The kill sites were single kill events. Water supply, sanitation and health risks in Douala 5 municipality, Cameroon. Petroleum exploitation has fallen in recent decades but is still a significant contributor to the economy. High rainfall means high potential recharge potential in much of Cameroon, except in the arid north, and the limitations on groundwater potential are therefore largely related to low aquifer storage and permeability in the basement rocks across much of the country. Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. What are the water sources of Cameroon? We used data from 245 kills and 74 faecal samples. Lions get their water like most other savanna mammals, relying on watering holes and temporary pools to hydrate. Water Resources Management and Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Cameroon. The former French colony won independence in 1960, and the former British colony joined with it in 1961. Tsavo Lion Project - Lion Conservation Fund. Favourable soils and climate have allowed plantation agriculture to flourish, with extensive export of cash crops, including coffee and cocoa. What are specific water sources the Lions exploit? 2018. Thus the importance of buffalo as prey is despite dry season variations when nutrition and water deprivation weaken susceptible individuals (young and old). Fish River Canyon For more information on the map see the, Land Cover Map of Cameroon, from the European Space Agency GlobCover 2.3, 2009. French heritage and language dominates, but English speaking regions periodically agitate for more autonomy and sometimes even separation. Per Capita in 2000 : 19 192 m 3 /year. Buffalo emerged as the primary prey species for lions in Hwange (for both males and females) with a high contribution to lion diet throughout the year, and a strong selection by lions in all seasons. That was the only source of water for the entire Mambele community before WWF rehabilitated this stand tap. Groundwater Need Assessment - Lake Chad Basin. This is consistent with findings from Kruger National Park where GPS data from male and female lions suggest that males were only present with females at 10% of their kills [4]. Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon. Bold dashed lines indicate means. Hence, lions appear to respond to the high abundance of megaherbivores in this ecosystem. Our entire household has been drinking from this source for many years. During this time game sightings were spectacular. Bibliographic reference: Upton K, Dochartaigh B and Bellwood-Howard I. They do not only use rivers to gather water to drink but to bathe as well. 1). Following established methods, hair cross-sections and scale pattern imprints were prepared for microscopic analysis using a Watson Microsystem 70 microscope [28], [29]. Seasonal geographic information on waterholes was available and allowed us to calculate for each kill the distance to the nearest waterhole containing water (distance-to-water) using ArcView 3.2 nearest neighbour extensions (ESRI 2004). Your email address will not be published. Effect of diffuse recharge and wastewater on groundwater contamination in Douala, Cameroon. Juveniles also represented an important proportion of the giraffe killed by lions (Fig. Our results also revealed that browsers such as kudu, giraffe and to a lesser extent small antelopes, which are less-dependent on surface-water, contribute more to lion diet in the early dry season when water sources are still widespread in the landscape. In communities where neither springs nor stand taps are unavailable, the population drink from open streams that also serve for laundry and bathing. Jacobs indices based on faecal data are closer to those for females based on kill data, which is to be expected as most faecal samples were collected at female kill sites. Most groundwater in Cameroon is thought to be of good natural inorganic quality. This section provides a summary of the hydrogeology of the main aquifers in Cameroon. Kill analysis revealed 14 different species being utilised by lions (Table 1). More information on average rainfall and temperature for each of the climate zones in Cameroon can be seen at the Cameroon climate page. Prey moves between the islands and lions have to cross the water to follow. Water dependence varies between herbivore species [11], [13] but most species need to access drinking water on a few-day basis at the peak of the dry season, and herbivore aggregations frequently form around permanent water sources during dry seasons, as non-permanent sources further afield dry up [14], [15]. Windhoek 1). These statistics are sourced from FAO Aquastat. Cameroons national parks are vast and the dedicated wildlife authorities and staff on the ground oftentimes lack adequate financial support and resources to carry out effective management. Cameroon, a country located in Central Africa, is one of those places. Groundwater from volcanic aquifers is widely used by the bottled water industry. Sightings of Lion in the Hluhluwe Umfolozi vary according to various factors. African elephants that have become accustomed to the relentless cycles of drought in Etosha and map its water sources in their memories. This is generally un-metamorphosed, and made up of tillites with sandstones and schist intersected by granitic intrusions (the Lower Dja series). Proportions of each age class were relatively constant with an increase in the predation on juveniles by males in the wet season (Fig. 2015) of groundwater. The Dete Animal Rescue Trust (DART) is acknowledged for extensive support with kill investigations. Etosha The remaining species contributed less than 5% per species. 2). 18, ST/TCD/5. They typically form small, local aquifers, limited to areas where the rock has been fractured and weathered to increase its permeability. 1. The city of Harare is supplied with water from Lakes Chivero and Darwendale or Manyame river, Seke and Harava dams on the outskirts of the city. In spite of the presence of a stand tap at the centre of the village, many villagers still rely on the water source. Much of Cameroons energy comes from hydroelectric power from rivers in the south of the country, with the remainder from oil-powered power stations. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. Values>0 indicate preference, values<0 suggest use but avoidance. Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. With 208 km 3 of renewable water resources, only 1 km 3 is used for drinking water. We use cookies to analyse how visitors use our website and to help us provide the best possible experience for users. They rely on some of the Kalahari's plants that have also adapted to the dry conditions and either store water or have mechanisms to prevent excess water loss. 62% of elephants were taken in 2005, which was a drought year (rainfall: 330 mm), concurring with increasing relative contribution of elephant to lion kills in the late dry season and peak contribution in the wet season (due to many kills in November before the first rains). Seasonal differences in the distribution of prey consumed were tested using chi-square tests. The importance of buffalo was more pronounced for male lions, which corroborates findings from other studies [39]. Faecal analysis revealed a higher number of species occurring in the lion diet (20 species), owing to the detection of more small prey items, unexpectedly including climbing mice (Dendromus spp.) African elephants that have become accustomed to the relentless cycles of drought in Etosha and map its water sources in their memories. This is reflected by the declines in certain rare herbivores when artificial water points allowed more common herbivores and resident predators access to areas previously too dry to support them [48], [50]. 2009. Lions are stalk-and-ambush hunters that use vegetative cover for concealment during hunting and are known to ambush prey in habitats surrounding high-prey abundance areas . The least mineralised groundwater overall is in basement aquifers. For females, buffalo were followed by kudu (16%), the class medium Bovidae (13%), giraffe (12%), zebra (9%) and elephant (8%), together accounting for 91% of the prey detected (Table 1). 2017) and organic pollution (Sanou et al. Volcanic centres form moderately to highly productive fractured/weathered aquifers. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS Three other major rivers are the Djrem, Bnuo, and Nyong. Working to sustain the natural world for the benefit of people and nature. Understanding how predators make use of their environment and how actions such as augmenting water supply can alter their behavioural ecology, has implications for the long term sustainability of predator-prey systems. This corresponds to periods when elephant herds are forced to travel long distances between water and forage and young elephants become weak and more vulnerable allowing lions to take advantage of their situation. The dominant land cover in the northern lowland region is savanna scrub and grass. spesification Felix Murindagomo, 2017. The uppermost sandy layer is hydraulically connected with brackish waters in the Wouri estuary, and saline waters of the coastal wetlands. WWF worked together with the communities to rehabilitate six stand taps in six communities," explains Njounan. This is due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season which is compensated by an increase in other species consumption (Table 1). The coastal plain and southern plateau are dominated by equatorial rainforest. This section provides a summary of the geology of Cameroon. However, no significant shift in prey was revealed. Buffalo (the highest contribution in all seasons for both sexes) showed a constant contribution to male diet throughout the seasons, and a lower contribution to female diet in the early dry season. Small antelopes contributed 1% to lion diet by relative biomass consumed. What water sources do lions exploit in zimbabweabout school : Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; What water sources do lions exploit in zimbabwemaryland lacrosse camps 2021. Water weed which has invaded and is choking Harare's main water sources like Lake Chivero. It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally bounce these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. Largely acidic groundwater, with pH from 4 to 7. Overall, relative seasonal contribution revealed that grazers, such as Suidae and zebra, contribute more to lion diet in the late dry season when these species are heavily dependent on frequent access to surface-water. 1). (A) Mean distance to a waterhole for kills for the different prey species. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, 1998). Transboundary Groundwater Fact Sheet, compiled by F Bontemps. The majority of the population is employed in agriculture, much of it at subsistence scale with surplus produce sold in local markets. Sahara Desert In Douala, studies have shown nitrate pollution (Wirmvem et al. Little is known of the Cretaceous lower aquifer, which is composed of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire, with fossil and highly mineralized groundwater (GWP 2013). Four good reasons to indulge in cryptocurrency! Artesian pressure is being reduced, possibly due to over pumping. spesification Zebra and Suidae showed a peak in contribution to female lion diet in the late dry season (Fig. Water resources in northern Cameroon have continuously been reducing over the past years. Vernal pools are a type of wetlands - sometimes resembling larger puddles. A lower series of clays and sandstones in the southeast, and an upper series of sandstones in the west of the basin. Sossusvlei In 51% of the faeces found at kill sites, one of the detected prey species was the same as the consumed species at that kill site (see also [4]). Mambele residents have been drinking from this never-drying source for as long as the local residents can remember. Seasonal surface-water dynamics thus, influences the probability which predators can find prey and is likely to have several consequences for the ecology of predator-prey interactions. For each hair the cross-section and a scale pattern was photographed and identified to species level using photographic reference libraries [30][33] as well as unpublished photographic reference libraries compiled from carcass, capture and museum specimen animals in situ in Zimbabwe. The Logone flows northward into the Lake Chad basin, which Cameroon shares with three neighbouring countries. Most often asked questions related to bitcoin. 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